• This is an important disease of mango in India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Indonesia, Trinidad, Peru, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, the Philippines, France, South Africa, West Indies and Brazil.
• The disease was observed in several districts of the Punjab. Since then, it has been found in all mango-growing tracts of the country.

Symptoms

Black spots on leaves

The disease appears on young leaves, stem, inflorescence and fruits. Leaves show oval or irregular, greyish-brown spots which may coalesce to cover larger area of the leaf. The affected leaf tissues dry and shred. Leaves on infected petioles droop and fall. On young stem, grey-brown spots develop. These enlarge and cause girdling and drying of the affected area. The disease appears on young leaves, stem, inflorescence and fruits.

Black spots on Infloroscence

Leaves show oval or irregular, greyish-brown spots which may coalesce to cover larger area of the leaf. The affected leaf tissues dry and shred. Leaves on infected petioles droop and fall. On young stem, grey-brown spots develop. These enl arge and cause girdling and drying of the affected area. Often, black necrotic areas develop on the twigs from the tip downwards causing a dieback. In humid weather, minute, black dots develop on the floral organs.

Black spots on fruit

The infected flower-parts ultimately shed resulting in partial or complete deblossoming. Latent infections of fruit are established before harvest. The ripening fruits show typical anthracnose. Black spots appearing on skin of the affected fruits gradually become sunken and coalesce.

The Causal Organism

• The survival of pathogen in detached diseased twigs and leaves lying on surface of soil and in diseased twigs attached to the tree.
• They successfully reproduced the disease by inoculating leaves, petioles, stems and fruits.
• The optimum temperature for infection was found to be 25⁰ C. The disease spreads rapidly in the rainy season.
• Cloudy and misty weather during flowering favours damage to the infected floral parts. The pathogen causes severe leaf spotting.
• The diseased tissues frequently slough out.
• The role of auxin-phenol complex in shot-hole syndrome has been studied.
• The appearance of spots in more concentration at the stem-end and sometimes in stripes down the sides of the fruits suggested distribution of spores by rain water over surface of the fruit.
• The fungus can enter the pores of green fruits.
• The latent infection of mature fruits may take place through lenticels.
• The fungus apparently infects the fruit while it is green and develops in flesh during ripening.

Control

• Removal and destruction of infected plant-parts.
• Sprays with fungicides such as Burgundy mixture, Bordeaux mixture, maneb, fycol, blitox, dithane or blizene, captan zineb and benomyl have been found effective against the disease.
• Hot water treatment is effective against the fruit rot.
• The hot water treatment (55⁰ C for 5 minutes) is alone controlled the anthracnose for three weeks and benomyl or TBZ added to hot water gave control for four weeks.
• By dipping fruits in benomyl (500 ppm) and thiabendazole (900 ppm) is enough to achieve good control.
• Treatment of fruits with heated benomyl at 55⁰ C for 5 minutes yields satisfactory results.

• Occurrence of mildew has been recorded in India, Pakistan, Ceylon, South Africa, Rhodesia, Palestine, Brazil, Jamaica, Australia and the U.S.A. In India, the disease is particulary destructive in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Symptoms

Inflorescence with powdery mildew

The disease appears in the form of whitish or greyish powdery areas on tender foliage and inflorescence. The powdery mass consists mainly of fungal spores. Normally infection spreads from tip of inflorescence and covers the floral axis, young leaves and stem.

• Mildew affects the flowers before fertilization and the fruits in their earliest stages.
• The affected fruits drop off prematurely or show malformation and discolouration.

The Causal Organism

• This name originally by Berthet in Brazil.
• Morphological characters of the pathogen are given below.
• Mycelium, branched, hyaline, superficial, composed of septate hyphae, 4.1-8.2m in diameter, forming a dense white coating; haustoria, saccate or lobate; conidia, hyaline, unicellular, elliptical, borne singly or rarely in chains of two, measuring 42.9 X 18-21.9m (average); conidiophores, simple, erect, 63-163 m in length, with two or more basal cells.

Disease Cycles

• Spores blown wind from infected areas readily adhere to hairy, unopened flowers near tip of the inflorescence and germinate in five to seven hours.
• Fungus grows rapidly during cloudy weather accompanied with heavy morning mist.
• Warm, humid weather and low night temperatures favour dissemination of the pathogen.
• Overall disease development is favoured by high humidity.

Control

• The disease may be controlled by spraying 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture, cosan, karathane WD and benomyl.
• Although dusting sulphur at 10-15 days interval is effective, the treatment may cause handling hazards and toxicity in hot weather.
• Satisfactory control can be achieved by sprays with 0.2 per cent wettable sulphur.
• Cela CA 70203 (funginex) is another promising fungicide.
• At Basti (U.P.), Neelum, Zardalu, Banglora, Totapari-Khurd and Janardan Pasand are resistant.

• This destructive disease of mango is known to occur in India and other mango-growing countries.

Symptoms

• The onset of dieback becomes evident by discolouration and darkening of the bark some distance from the tip.
• The dark area advances and young, green twigs start withering first at the base and then extending outwards along the veins of leaf edges.
• The affected leaf turns brown and its margin rolls upward.
• At this stage, the twig or branch dies, shrivels and falls.
• This may be accompanied by exudation of gum.
• Infected twigs show internal discolouration.
• Brown streaking of vascular tissues is seen on splitting the twigs lengthwise along the long axis.
• In early stages, epidermal and subepidermal cells of twigs appear slightly shrivelled.
• The areas of cambium and phloem show brown discolouration and a yellow, gum-like exudate filled in some of the cells.
• In the final stages, microscopic examination reveals extensive shrivelling of stem tissues, obstruction of xylem vessels with fungal mycelium, and disjunction of stele and outer layers along the discoloured streak of the affected cambial cells.
• Diplodia natalensis has been reported as the causal agent.
• The dieback symptoms are also produced as a result or infection by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.
• The relative predominance of Coletotrichum and Diplodia and any other pathogenic fungus in the disease remains to be studied.
• In Puerto Rico, the disease has been attributed to physalospora rhodina (B. & C.) Cke., the Diplodia state of which has been found endemic on that Island.
• In the Diplodia state, the fungus produces brown to black, globose to sub-globose, pyriform or erumpent pycnidia that are ostiolate.
• These asexual fruiting bodies measure 120-155 X 370-465m .
• Two types of conidia are produced within a pycnidium: (i) hyaline and (ii) olive-brown.
• The former are thin-walled and unicellular, while the latter are thick-walled and bicelled with four to six longitudinal striations.
• High summer temperature possibly contributes to impaired vitality of the tree predisposing it to the fungal attack.
• Relative humidity above 80 per cent, maximum and minimum temperatures of 31.5⁰ and 25.9⁰ C, respectively, and rains favour the disease development.
• Variety Mohan Bog shows maximum infection while Saroli the minimum.

Control

• In Puerto Rico, measures such as selection of scion from healthy trees, sterilisation of budding knives, placement of budded trees in dry environment and gradual exposure to full sunlight have been suggested for control of dieback of grafted seedlings.

Symptoms

C. transversa damage	P. umbratelis damage	The leaves of affected tree are lustureless and sparse.
C. transversa damage	Diseased tree wilts and dies. Infected roots are very light in weight and get easily crumbled and powdered with fingers.

• The fruiting bodies of the fungus (brackets) appear at the base of the tree in rainy season.
  
• The fungus also attacks other fruit trees like coconut, citrus, Jack, cashew etc.

Control

• Collection of brackets and destruction, exposure of roots and drenching with dinocap 2ml/litre and covering with soil and incorporation of green leaves in the tree basin effectively reduce disease.

• The disease is of common occurrence in India and Israel.
• In India, many kinds of fruits and plantation crops are affected by the disease.
• The sooty mould can be incited by Tripospermum acernum (Syd.) Speg.
• The disease is more commonly caused by Capnodium mangiferae Cke. and Brown and Meliola mangiferae Earle.

Symptoms

1.Sooty mould on inflorescence
2. Sooty mould on ripe fruit
3. Sooty mould on matured fruit
4.Sooty mould on leaf

1	The fungus in the true sense is non-pathogenic because it does not enter the host and derive nutrients from the host tissues. The mould grow on the honey-dew secreted by hoppers, scales and coccids on leaves and twigs, and produces masses of black spores which stick to the leaf surface. Although on direct damage is caused by the fungus, the photosynthetic activity of the leaf is adversely affected because of black cover of spore masses over the leaf area.
2	3	4

Control

• Insecticidal sprays with diazinon or dimecron (0.03 per cent) should be applied to kill the insects.
• The fungal growth can be checked by spraying with 0.2 per cent wettable sulphur.

• The disease has been recorded from Maharashtra and Delhi.
• The disease is causedby Macrophoma mangiferae.

Symptoms

• Symptoms are observed mainly on the leaves and rarely on the stem.
• Yellowish, pin-head-like spots appear on leaves and twigs.
• These gradually enlarge.
• The surrounding tissues first become light brown and then dark brown.
• They have slightly raised and dark purplish margins.
• Later, the tissues become ash-coloured due to formation of pycnidia.
• The round spots gradually become oval or irregular.
• The leaf tip dries up and infection spreads downwards towards petiole.
• On stem, elliptical lesions appear which later girdle the stem tissues at the point of infection.
• On fruit, water-soaked, round lesions are formed which enlarge rapidly and particularly occur in the storage.
• The pathogen can survive in mango leaves for over a year.
• Heavy infection is noticed during the monsoon.
• Khandeshi Borasio and Asol Dadanio to be completely free from infection.

Control

• Since the pathogen survives in leaves, removal and destruction of infected plant-parts can reduce the amount of inoculum.

• The disease is widespread on many fruits and plantation crops not only in India but in many tropical and sub-tropical countries.

• The disease appears as a pinkish, powdery coating on the stem.
• The pink colour represents profuse conidial production by the fungus.
• The fungal growth may spread and girdle the stem.
• The pathogen invades cortical tissues and interferes with transport of nutrients.
• Shoots and branches of the affected trees wilt and dry up, and the leaves shed away.
  Sometimes the fungus produces pustular or Nector stage which is noticed as orange-red pustules arranged in rows along the stem.
• The dormant mycelium of the pathogen survives in the cankerous tissues and bark.
• The disease is incited by Botryobasidium salmonicolor (Berk & Br.).

Control

• It can be checked by cutting away the infected branches and protecting the cut-wound with Bordeaux paste (copper sulphate; water - 1:2:16-20).

• This algal disease of mango has been observed in India and the U.S.A.
• Its major distribution in India has been in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Karnataka.
• The disease appeared in an epidemic form in the Tarai State orchards in 1956.
• Reduction in photosynthetic activity and defoliation as a result of algal attack lower vitality of the host plant.
• Besides mango, the alga (Cephaleuros virescens Kunze) attacks many other types of plants.

Symptoms

Red rust on leaves

The disease can be easily recognised by the rusty-red spots mainly on leaves and sometimes on petioles and young twigs. The spots are at first greenish-grey in colour and velvety in texture. Later they turn reddish-brown. The roughly circular and slightly elevated spots sometimes coalesce to form a larger, irregular spot. The upper surface of the spot consists of numerous, unbranched filaments which project through the cuticle. Some of the filaments represent sterile hairs while others the fertile ones. The latter bear cluster of spores at the apes. Cells of both the types of hairs and mature spores are brown-coloured. After shedding of spores and hairs, a creamy white mark of the algae remains at the original rust spot.

• The disease is more common on closely planted mother plants.
• Fruiting bodies of the algae form in moist atmosphere.
• The zoospores formed by the sporangium initiate fresh infections.
• Stem entry is achieved by way of cracks.
• The pathogen invades some of the outer cortical cells.
• The affected areas crack and scale off.
• The algae can be grown on artificial media.
• Both glucose and sucrose are less wile fructose is more in the alga infected tissues, Starch, cellulose and pectin were more in the infected tissues while lignin content was unaffected.
• The algal infection caused reductions in the total protein, ammoniacal, nitrite, amino and amide nitrogen content whereas nitrates accumulated in the infected leaves.
• Glutamic acid and alanine increased markedly but glycine decreased sharply and valine content was not affected by the algal infection.
• Avoidance of close planting may be helpful in keeping the disease away.
• The disease can be checked by spraying with Bordeaux mixture (6:6:100), cupramar, fytolan, blitox-50 or lime sulphur.
• Lichens occur on trunks, branches and twigs of mango and litch. Intensity of lichen growth is generally more in humid areas and neglected orhcards.
• The affected trees with severe lichen intesity generally show poor growth.
• The lichens can be controlled by spraying with one per cent commercial caustic soda.

• Of the two phanerogamic genera, Dendrophthoe (Loranthus) and Viscum, the former is more commonly involved as a parasite of mango.
• In North India, more than 60 per cent of mango trees are affected by this stem parasite.
• Severly attacked trees produce small leaves of unhealthy green colour.
• The quality and yield of fruits from such trees are considerably lowered.
• The parasite, Dendrophrhoe falcata (L.f.) Ettings is a glabrous shrub with green leaves but without a true root system.
• Stem of the parasite is thick, erect or flattened at the nodes and appears to arise in clusters at the point of attack.
• This dicot semi parasite produces long and tubular flowers in clusters.
• Birds and other animals spread and deposit the seeds of the parasite on branches of mango trees where they germinate and produce haustoria.
• The penetrated host tissues often swell to form tumours.

• The parasite can be easily detached in the early stages.
• In the later stage, the infected branches should be cut sufficiently low to eradicate the haustoria.
• Injections of copper sulphate and 2, 4-D to the infected branches or a spray of 30-40 per cent diesel oil emulsion in soap water can also eradicate the parasite.

Symptoms

Branches showing black banded disease.

The disease manifests as black velvety raised fungal out growth in the form of spots which gradually increase in size and encircle the trunk, limbs, branches and twigs. The disease occasionally spreads on to the leaves and causes loss. Control Commercial cultivars viz., Neelam, Banganapalli (Banishan) and Tothapari (Collector) are susceptible to the disease. Painting any copper fungicide after rubbing the affected portion with gunny is effective.

• This non parasitic disease is confined to India.
• It was first recorded in Bihar in 1908 and in Uttar Pradesh in 1923.
• The disease has also been reported from Bengal and the Punjab.
• It affects the fruits when they are about seven weeks old or at maturity.
• The disease occurs in orchards located close to brick-kilns.

• The first outward symptom is the development of a small, etiolated area at the distal end of the fruit which spreads and covers the whole tip.
• Before complete etiolation, isolated, greyish, indefinite spots appear and the tip turns dirty green.
• The spots then enlarge, turn dark brown and coalesce into a continuous necrotic area.
• Finally, the tissues decay and necrotic portion collapses.
• The pericarp and mesocarp disintegrate exposing dark brown flesh beyond which the stone protrudes with a layer of collapsed tissues over it. Gummosis is frequently present.
• A brown substance deposits in lumen of vessels of outer mesocarp at distal end of the fruit.
• The brown discolouration spreads to the neighbouring parenchyma, while the deposit also appears in the ducts.
• Browning and deposits gradually spread throught the mesocarp and the affected cells disintegrate and coalesce into a dead tissue.
• In severely affected fruits, the necrosis extends to the endocarp.
• The epidermis breaks at some points and the break continues in the adjacent mesocarp.
• A brown substance oozes out through the fissures.
• The latter hardens into a dry mass.
• Smoke of brick kilns is responsible for the disease of crystalline substance was isolated from brick kiln fumes which produced typical symptoms of necrosis.
• The necrosis resulted from a disturbance of boron metabolism induced by the interaction of some constituent of boron metabolism induced by the interaction of some constituent of brick kiln fumes with cell metabolites of mango levels and fruit.
• Apical part of diseased Tamboori fruits have low contents of iron, boron and ascorbic acid. Marked differences in varietal susceptibility have been noted.
• These differences are connected with the number of lenticels per unit area of the skin.
• In general, Dashehiri is most susceptible to black tip.

• The disease can be reduced by one to two sprayings with borax (2.7-3.6 kg per 100 gal water).
• Trees sprayed three times with a 0.6 per cent solution of borax (600 g of borax mixed in 100 litre of water) plus a sticker, at the rate of 10 liter per tree were almost free from black tip.
• Although black tip of mango can be prevented by applying borax, the disease is not caused due to the fruit surface prevents entry of the poisonous fumes in the form they are generated or they are changed into a form which is less toxic.
• Other control measures are: (i) restriction of new kiln sites to a safe distance, (ii) stopping the working of kilns before the time of fruit-set and (iii) use of telescopic chimneys (12-15 m high).
• The mango decline is becoming a serious problem in the northern region of India.
• On the old leaves, leaf tissues collapse in clearly defined marginal areas of brick red colour towards the tip.
• Gradually the entire lamina becomes affected.
• The younger leaves generally do not show symptoms up to two months of their emergence.
• The potassium deficiency with which symptoms of the disease resemble is not the cause but a consequence of chloride ion toxicity.

• Several fungi and a few bacteria are known to incite postharvest decay.
• The focus of infection other than the stem-end could be lenticels.
• In India, fungi belonging to some 20 different genera are known to attack mango fruits.
• Of these, the most important ones are Diplodia natalensis Pole Evans, Colletotridhum gloeosporioides, Rhizopus arrhizus Fishcer and Aspergillus niger Van Tiegh.

• Diplodia stem-end rot incited by Diplodia natalensis is an important postharvest disease of ripe mango fruits.
• The rot not only spoils 4 to 6 per cent fruits every year in the Indian Markets.
• But also affects the mango export.
• The fear of India losing the mango export may become quite real.
• The extent of damage in Indian consignments landed at the U.K. airports had been as much as nearly 50 per cent due to this disease alone. Besides India, where its occurrence was recorded as late as in 1964, the disease is known to occur in Burma, Ceylon, the Philippines, Mauritius and the U.S.A.

Symptoms

In the initial stage, the epicarp darkens around the base of the pedicel. In the next few hours, the affected area enlarges to form a circular, black patch which under humid atmosphere extends rapidly and turns the whole fruit completely black within two to three days.

• The pulp of the diseased fruit becomes brown and some-what softer.
• The pathogen incites a soft rot with the aid of pectinolytic and cellulolytic enzymes.
• The infected fruits lose ascorbic acid rapidly and they have low content of non-reducing sugars in the pulp.
• Epidemiological investigations in India have revealed that the dead twigs and bark of mango trees harbour the pathogen abundantly, and with the onset of rains, the atmosphere of the mango orchard gets contaminated with spores of the fungus.
• Cultures can infect readily when inoculated in cavities made on the pedicels of the fruits.
• The avenues of natural infection of uninjured mango fruits are the exposed surface of the attached pedicel or the stem-end scar when the pedicel is removed.

Control

• The infection can be reduced by dipping mangoes in 6 per cent borax solution at 43⁰ C for three minutes.
• Attempts to control the disease by radiation, fungicides and hot water have been unsuccessful.
• The antibiotic was found ineffective.
• Based on critical studies on stage of infection, following control measures are suggested

• It is caused by Aspergillus niger.

Symptoms

Fruit with Black rot

The affected fruits show yellowing of base and development of irregular, hazy, gryish spots which coalesce into dark brown or black lesions. The side of the fruit is occasionally involved.

• The mesocarp of the rotted area becomes depressed and soft.
• The stalk-end infection results in premature fruit drop.
• The diseased fruits show rapid decrease in ascorbic acid content.

Control

• A fruit-dip treatment with benlate at 1500 ppm can control the rot.

• Rhizopus arrhizus alone was reponsible for the decay of 6.3 per cent fruits in Delhi markets.
• The pathogen incites a typical soft rot.
• Development of disease is slow and of low intensity at low temperatures (7-8⁰ C).
• The disease develops rapidly between 20 and 40⁰ C 2-aminothiazole with 2-aminopyridine (each in 5 per cent concentration) protected mango fruits for 20 days.
• The oils (mobil, mustard, castor and paraffin, each at 75 per cent concentration with 1 per cent soap solution) were effective in pre-inoculation treatments.

Symptoms

Rhizopus soft rot

Affected fruits show grey, irregular lesions scattered all round the surface of fruits. The skin becomes soft and discoloured. A dry rot of ripe fruits of variety Langra caused by Boothiella tetraspora.

• Infected fruit shows black, circular or oval spot, which enlarges and the infected fruits shrivel and dry.
• Actinodochium jenkinsii Uppal, incites fungal black spot.
• Affected fruits show a few dusky brown to blackish-brown, round, small necrotic spots.
• Ripe fruits are more susceptible to the disease.
• Brown spot is incited by Pestalotia mangiferae has been by variety Chausa is resistant to this disease.
• Fruits infected by Phomopsis mangiferae Ahmad show discrete and discoloured areas all over.
• Such areas turn dark brown to black at maturity.
• The smaller spots may coalesce to form bigger ones.
• The underlying tissues get sloughed and become soft and juicy.
• Later, black fruiting bodies appear on the spots.
• Variety Totapuri is more susceptible to the pathogen bacterial soft rot of mango fruits from Bombay.
• The disease was found to be quite common from May to August.
• They identified the causal bacterium as Bacterium carotovorus.
• Bacterial rot of stored mangoes is incited by Pseudomonas mangiferae-indicae.

Scarified mango fruit

The fruit surface constantly touching the ground or branch or leaves develops elephant skin like discoloured hardy rind due to tissue damage and healing. The quality of the fruit is reduced substantially.

• To prevent scarification,branch of the fruits touching the ground should be raised by giving support and zig zag branches from the the tree removed.

Stem-end soft rot

The peculiarity of the rot is that the disease initiates around the stem-end as brown round area and gradually spreads to the stylar end covering the entire fruit.

• Rotten portion is soft and slightly white in colour.Bad smell is emitted from the rot.

Stylar-end rot

Rhizopus at times incites soft rot at stylar end of the fruit. Rotten portion gives water soaked appearance. As the days prolong the rot spreads from stylar end to the stem end.

• Rotten portion is soft and slightly white in colour.Bad smell is emitted from the rot.

Tumors on Thothapoori mango

Tumors of pea to marble size develop on fruit and are very ugly to look at. The stylar end part is much affected while stem end is practically free from tumors. The tumors are seen abundantly on Thotapuri(collecter).

• The etiology is not known.
• Fruits with tumors have least consumer preferance.
• They are neither fit for export nor for pulp making in canning factors.

Symptoms

1. Twig blight due to C. gloeosporides
2. Twig blight due to B. theobromae
3. Twig blight due to G. mangiferae

1

2

3

• Die-back of twigs, low or no production, small and poor quality fruits are the manifestations of the disease.
• The disease is incited by three types of fungi and each fungus manifests its symptoms differently.
• Botryodiplodia blight causes drying of entire twig while, gloeosporium blight causes die-back of the twigs.
• In case of colletotrichum blight the young twigs get blighted from tip downwards.
• The fungi multiply abundantly during rainy season and causes twig blight.

Control

• Purning dried twigs and branches along with an inch of adjacent healthy portion followed by spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture or copper oxychloride 3 g/litre could be effective for the control.
• Application of advocated manures will impart resistance against the disease.

• To avoid injuries to fruits at harvest, use harvesters developed. Harvesters are available at IIHR, Bangalore and Pune.
• Harvest the fruit along with pedicel/stalk and keep the harvested fruits with stalk end to avoid latex tickling to the fruit surface.
• Paper waste or paddy straw should be kept in between fruits while packing to avoid stress fruits.
• Dipping fruits in 6% wax emulsion increases the life and reduce rots.
• The walls and the floor of the godown should b kept clean and tidy.
• Application of recommended doses of N, P an K makes the plant robust and yield quality fruit besides imparting tolerance to storage rots.
• Give one spray with carbendazim 1 g /litre 15 days before harvest.
• Avoid irrigation one month before harvest.
• Rail wagons used for transportation of fruit: should be lined inside with non-conducting material to make heatproof and to reduce heat damage.
• Cold storage facilities and canning factories for conversion and preservation of mango raw and ripe fruits should be established in mango belts.